Wako Pirates and Japanese Swords: How Maritime Raiders Spread Sword Culture Across East Asia
Who Were the Wako? Pirates or Traders?
"Wako" (倭寇) is the collective term for the pirate groups and armed merchant communities that operated along the coastlines of China, Korea, and Southeast Asia from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century. The character wa (倭) is the Sinitic term for Japan, and ko (寇) means "bandit" or "raider." As the name implies, the early wako were predominantly Japanese, but over time their membership became increasingly multinational.
The early wako (fourteenth to fifteenth centuries) were primarily Japanese groups based on Kyushu, Tsushima, and Iki islands. Raiding, abduction, and smuggling along the Korean peninsula and the Chinese coast were their main activities. The later wako (sixteenth century) were dominated by Chinese merchants and eventually Portuguese traders, and their character shifted toward that of large-scale smuggling networks.
The image of "wako as Japanese-sword-wielding pirates" applies mainly to the early wako; the later wako are considerably more complex.
The Impact of the Japanese Sword on China and Korea
Through wako activities, the Japanese sword came to be recognized as a superior weapon in both China and Korea.
Korean anti-wako defense: The Goryeo and Joseon dynasties strengthened their navies and coastal defenses in response to the wako threat. To counter the cutting attacks of Japanese swords, Korean military men studied and adopted similar curved-blade technology. The hwando (환도)—a military saber that developed in Korea—bears the unmistakable influence of the Japanese sword.
Impact on Ming Dynasty China: When the later wako reached the peak of their destructive power in the sixteenth century, Ming armies struggled greatly against Japanese sword tactics. The military treatise Jixiao Xinshu (紀效新書), composed by general Qi Jiguang, contains detailed passages on how to counter Japanese sword techniques, and records survive showing that Chinese armies seriously studied Japanese sword arts. The Ming eventually manufactured and adopted their own version of the wakatachi (Japanese-style bladed sword).
When the Japanese Sword Became an Export Commodity
During the Nanbokucho and Muromachi periods, Japanese swords were an important export product. Most notably, Japanese swords were among the most significant export goods in the kangō trade (tally trade) with Ming China (1404–1547).
